Question 1: Discuss how the changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people:
- Shifting cultivators
- Nomadic and pastoralist communities
- Firms trading in timber/forest produce
- Plantation owners
- Kings/British officials engaged in shikar
The changes in forest management affected various groups:
- Shifting cultivators: Dispossessed and displaced, forced to change professions, and some participated in rebellions.
- Nomadic and pastoralist communities: Prohibited from traditional activities, labeled "criminal," and forced to bribe forest guards.
- Firms trading in timber/forest produce: Profited under government regulation and exclusive trading rights.
- Plantation owners: Recruited displaced tribes, made profits with low-wage labor, and suppressed worker protests.
- Kings/British officials engaged in shikar: Encouraged hunting large animals, leading to mass killings.
Question 2: What are the similarities between colonial management of the forests in Bastar and in Java?
The similarities between colonial forest management in Bastar and Java include the initiation of forest management for timber, displacement and exploitation of forest villagers, and suppression of revolts such as the Kalangs uprising in Java and the Bastar residents' revolt.
Question 3: Between 1880 and 1920, forest cover in the Indian subcontinent declined by 9.7 million hectares. Discuss the role of the following factors in this decline:
- Railways
- Shipbuilding
- Agricultural expansion
- Commercial farming
- Tea/Coffee plantations
- Adivasis and other peasant users
Factors contributing to the decline in forest cover:
- Railways: Felling trees for fuel and sleepers.
- Shipbuilding: Exporting large quantities of timber.
- Agricultural expansion: Clearing forests for cash crops.
- Commercial farming: Replacing diverse forests with managed forests.
- Tea/Coffee plantations: Employing low-wage workers, leading to forest neglect.
- Adivasis and other peasant users: Displacement resulted in forest exploitation for trade.
Question 4: Why are forests affected by wars?
Forests are affected by wars due to the ruthless cutting down of trees for war needs, such as fuel for locomotives and timber for shipbuilding. The blind destruction and depletion of forests to fulfill national war requirements contribute to their rapid decline.